Quest for Quality

Quality Control Tools

2007-10-18T21:05:00.000-07:00

Quality Control Tools

Production environments that utilize modern quality control methods are dependant upon statistical literacy. The tools used therein are called the seven quality control tools. These include:

Check sheet
Pareto Chart
Flow Chart
Cause and Effect Diagram
Histogram
Scatter Diagram
Control Chart

Check sheet
The function of a check sheet is to present information in an efficient, graphical format. This may be accomplished with a simple listing of items. However, the utility of the check sheet may be significantly enhanced, in some instances, by incorporating a depiction of the system under analysis into the form.

Pareto Chart
Pareto charts are extremely useful because they can be used to identify those factors that have the greatest cumulative effect on the system, and thus screen out the less significant factors in an analysis. Ideally, this allows the user to focus attention on a few important factors in a process. They are created by plotting the cumulative frequencies of the relative frequency data (event count data), in descending order. When this is done, the most essential factors for the analysis are graphically apparent, and in an orderly format.

Flowchart
Flowcharts are pictorial representations of a process. By breaking the process down into its constituent steps, flowcharts can be useful in identifying where errors are likely to be found in the system.

Cause and Effect Diagram
This diagram, also called an Ishikawa diagram (or fish bone diagram), is used to associate multiple possible causes with a single effect. Thus, given a particular effect, the diagram is constructed to identify and organize possible causes for it. The primary branch represents the effect (the quality characteristic that is intended to be improved and controlled) and is typically labelled on the right side of the diagram. Each major branch of the diagram corresponds to a major cause (or class of causes) that directly relates to the effect. Minor branches correspond to more detailed causal factors. This type of diagram is useful in any analysis, as it illustrates the relationship between cause and effect in a rational manner.

Histogram
Histograms provide a simple, graphical view of accumulated data, including its dispersion and central tendency. In addition to the ease with which they can be constructed, histograms provide the easiest way to evaluate the distribution of data.

Scatter Diagram
Scatter diagrams are graphical tools that attempt to depict the influence that one variable has on another. A common diagram of this type usually displays points representing the observed value of one variable corresponding to the value of another variable.

Control Chart
The control chart is the fundamental tool of statistical process control, as it indicates the range of variability that is built into a system (known as common cause variation). Thus, it helps determine whether or not a process is operating consistently or if a special cause has occurred to change the process mean or variance. The bounds of the control chart are marked by upper and lower control limits that are calculated by applying statistical formulas to data from the process. Data points that fall outside these bounds represent variations due to special causes, which can typically be found and eliminated. On the other hand, improvements in common cause variation require fundamental changes in the process.

Summary
The tools listed above are ideally utilized in a particular methodology, which typically involves either reducing the process variability or identifying specific problems in the process. However, other methodologies may need to be developed to allow for sufficient customization to a certain specific process. In any case, the tools should be utilized to ensure that all attempts at process improvement include:

Discovery
Analysis
Improvement
Monitoring
Implementation
Verification

David Garvin

2007-08-24T20:38:00.000-07:00

David Garvin identified his “eight dimensions of quality” which he maintained covered the meaning of quality to managers, operators and customers. By accepting that customers have a different perception of quality than that of a manager, quality effort can be focused.

The eight dimensions.

Performance: Main operating characteristics such as power, sound, speed etc.
Features: The extras that supplement the main characteristics such as trim,sunroof etc.
Reliability: How often it breaks down
Conformance: How close it is to the design specification or service to the customers experience.
Durability: Length of life, toughness in use, service frequency etc.
Serviceability: Ease, cost and friendliness of service.
Aesthetics: Appearance and impression.
Perceived quality: The feel, finish and manner in which the customer is dealt with.

Thomas Pyzdek

2007-08-20T20:22:00.000-07:00

Thomas Pyzdek, Principal of Pyzdek Consulting, Inc.holds a career in business process improvement, which spans 38 years. He is a leading quality and Six Sigma authority and the author of over 50 copyrighted works including The Six Sigma Handbook, The Handbook for Quality Management and Quality Engineering Handbook . Pyzdek was named "Outstanding writer and author" by The International Who’s Who in Quality and he received the Quality Progress Reader’s Choice award for his articles on the future of quality.
Pyzdek has provided consulting to major clients in a broad spectrum of industries. He provides consulting guidance from the executive suite to "Belts" working in the trenches. In his public seminars and client classes he has taught Six Sigma and other business process improvement methodologies to thousands.
Pyzdek is a Fellow of ASQ and recipient of the ASQ Edward’s Medal (1995) and the Simon Collier Quality Award (2004), both for outstanding contributions to the field of quality management. Pyzdek serves on numerous editorial boards, including The Quality Management Journal, Quality Engineering and International Journal of Six Sigma and Competitive Advantage. He has worked in process excellence since 1967.

Poka-yoke

2007-08-18T20:09:00.000-07:00

Poka-yoke was coined in Japan during the 1960s by Shigeo Shingo who was one of the industrial engineers at Toyota. Shigeo Shingo is also credited with creating and formalizing Zero Quality Control (poka-yoke techniques to correct possible defects + source inspection to prevent defects = zero quality control).

The initial term was baka-yoke, which means ‘fool-proofing’. In 1963, a worker at Arakawa Body Company refused to use baka-yoke mechanisms in her work area, because of the term’s dishonorable and offensive connotation. Hence, the term was changed to poka-yoke, which means ‘mistake-proofing’.

Ideally, poka-yoke ensures that proper conditions exist before actually executing a process step, preventing defects from occurring in the first place. Where this is not possible, poka-yoke performs a detective function, eliminating defects in the process as early as possible. This can be achieved using three rule.

Following are three rules of poka yoke:

Make the task more likely to to come right than wrong
Make errors evident right there on the spot
Make it possible for person to correct the error right then

Applying poka-yoke (steps)

Identify the operation or process - based on a pareto.
Analyze the 5-whys and understand the ways a process can fail.
Decide the right poka-yoke approach, such as using a
- shut out type (preventing an error being made), or an
- attention type (highlighting that an error has been made) poka-yoke.
Take a more comprehensive approach instead of merely thinking of poka-yokes as limit switches, or automatic shutoffs. A poka-yoke can be electrical, mechanical, procedural, visual, human or any other form that prevents incorrect execution of a process step.
Determine which is appropriate
- Contact - use of shape, size or other physical attributes for detection,
- Constant number - error triggered if a certain number of actions are not made
- Sequence method - use of a checklist to ensure completing all process steps
Trial the method and see if it works
Train the operator, review performance and measure success.

MISTAKE-PROOFING PRINCIPLES:

Hierarchy of Principles and Moving Upstream to Product & Process Design
Principle of Elimination
Role of Product Design - Design out Potential Defects
Principle of Replacement
Replace Error-Prone Product Features/Items
Replace Error-Prone Process Steps
Principle of Prevention
Prevent Errors with Product Design - Guidelines & Techniques
Prevent Errors with Process Design - Guidelines & Techniques
Poke-Yoke Devices - Sensors, Counters & Other
Principle of Facilitation
Product Design Techniques to Facilitate Error Avoidance
Process Design Techniques to Facilitate Error Avoidance
Visual Controls
Principle of Detection
Defect Detection - Poke Yoke Devices & Self-Checking
Principle of Mitigation

Joseph Juran

2007-08-15T21:09:00.000-07:00

Dr.Joseph Juran born in Romania on 24 Dec 1904 - the chairman emeritus of the Juran Instituite and an ASQC Honorary member. Since 1924, Juran has pursued a variety career in management as an engineer, executive, government administrator, university professor, labour arbitrator, corporate director, and consultant. Specialising in managing for quality, he has authored hundreds of papers and 12 books, including Juran’s Quality Control Handbook (1951) , Quality Planning and Analysis, and Juran on Leadership for Quality.

Juran’s trilogy: This is an approach to cross functional management that is composed of three managerial processes: planning, control, and improvement

Quality planning: This is the activity of developing the products and processes required to meet customer’s needs. It involves a series of universal steps which can be abbreviated as follows:
*Establish quality goals
*Identify the customers- those who will be impacted by the efforts to meet the goal.
*Determine the customers’ needs
*Develop product features that respond to customers’ needs
*Develop processes that are able to produce those product features
*Establish process controls, and transfer the resulting plans to the operating forces
Quality control: This process consists of the following steps:
*Evaluate actual quality performance
*Compare actual performance to quality goals
*Act on the difference
Quality improvement: This process is the means of raising quality performance to unprecedented levels ("breakthrough"). The methodology consists of a series of universal steps:
*Establish the infrastructure needed to secure annual quality improvement.
*Identify the specific needs for improvement -the improvement projects
*For each project establish a project team with clear responsibility for bringing the project to a successful conclusion
*Provide the resource, motivation, and training needed by the team to:
1.Diagnose the cause
2.Stimulate establishment of remedies
3.Establish controls to hold the gains

Cost of quality: The cost of quality, or not getting it right first time, Juran maintained should be recorded and analysed and classified into failure costs, appraisal costs and prevention costs.
Failure costs: Scrap, rework, corrective actions, warranty claims, customer complaints and loss of custom
Appraisal costs: Inspection, compliance auditing and investigations
Prevention costs: Training, preventive auditing and process improvement implementation

Juran proposes 10 steps to quality improvement:

Build awareness of the need and opportunity to improve
Set goals for that improvement
Create plans to reach the goals
Provide training
Conduct projects to solve problems
Report on progress
Give recognition for success
Communicate results
Keep score
Maintain momentum

Business Process Re-Engineering

2007-08-13T19:31:00.000-07:00

Business process re-engineering is the redesign of business processes and the associated systems and organizational structures to achieve a dramatic improvement in business performance. The business reasons for making such changes could include poor financial performance, external competition, erosion of market share or emerging market opportunities. BPR is not - downsizing, restructuring, reorganization, automation, new technology, etc. It is the examination and change of five components of the business:

Strategy
Processes
Technology
Organization
Culture

Michael Hammer defines business process re-engineering in his book Re-engineering the Corporation as: "Fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to bring about dramatic improvements in performance."

Hammer focuses on one of the key concepts of BPR, that it is fundamental and radical. The alternative business improvement methodology is Continuous Process Improvement, which emphasizes small and measurable refinements to an organization's current processes and systems. Continuous process improvement has its origins in total quality management (TQM) and Six Sigma,a program that began at Motorola.

Philip B. Crosby

2007-08-12T19:35:00.000-07:00

Philip B. Crosby was corporate vice president of IIT for 14 years. He was the founder and chairman of the board of Career IV, an executive management consulting firm. Crosby also founded Philip Crosby Associates Inc. and the Quality College. He has authored many books, including Quality is free, Quality without tears, Let’s talk Quality and Leading: The art of becoming an executive. Crosby originated the concept of zero defects. He believed the quality professional must become more knowledgeable and communicative about the business. He also stated that the corporate management must take the cost of quality as a part of the financial system.

Four Absolutes of Quality:
The First Absolute: THE DEFINITION OF QUALITY IS CONFORMANCE TO REQUIREMENTS , NOT AS GOODNESS
The Second Absolute: THE SYSTEM FOR CAUSING QUALITY IS PREVENTIVE , NOT APPRAISAL.
The Third Absolute: THE PERFORMANCE STANDARD MUST BE ZERO DEFECT , NOT "THAT’S CLOSE ENOUGH"
The Fourth Absolute: THE MEASUREMENT OF QUALITY IS THE PRICE OF NONCONFORMANCE , NOT INDEXES.

The Fourteen Steps to Quality Improvement, according to Crosby were:

Make it clear that management is committed to quality.
Form Quality Improvement Teams with senior representatives from each department.
Measure processes to determine where current and potential quality problems lie.
Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool.
Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees.
Take actions to correct problems identified through previous steps.
Establish progress monitoring for the improvement process.
Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvement programme.
Hold a Zero Defects Day to reaffirm management commitment.
Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves and for their group.
Encourage employees to tell management about obstacles to improving quality.
Recognise and appreciate those who participate.
Establish Quality Councils to communicate on a regular basis.
Do it all over again to emphasise that the quality improvement process never ends.

The Crosby "Vaccine"
In the Crosby style, the "Vaccine" is explained as medicine for management to prevent poor quality. It is in five sections that cover the requirements of Total Quality Management.
Section 1 - Integrity
Treat quality seriously throughout the whole business organisation from top to bottom. That the companies future will be judged on its performance on quality.
Section 2 - Systems
Appropriate measures and systems should be put in place for quality costs, education, quality, performance, review, improvement and customer satisfaction.
Section 3 - Communication
The communication systems are of paramount importance to communicate requirements and specifications and improvement opportunities around the organisation. Customers and operators know what needs to be put in place to improve and listening to them will give you the edge.
Section 4 - Operations
Work with and develop suppliers. Processes should be capable and improvement culture should be the norm.
Section 5 - Policies
Must be clear and consistent throughout the business.

Quality Management Principles

2007-08-09T21:33:00.000-07:00

The ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 9004:2000 form a consistent pair of QMS Standards. They are based on eight principles of quality management:

Customer Focus: Organizations depend on their customers, and therefore need to identify and understand their present and future needs.
Leadership: Needed for unit of purpose to create an environment in which, the entire organization is fully involved in achieving objectives.
Involvement of People: The full involvement of people at all levels enables their abilities to be used for the organization's benefit
Process Approach: To achieve results, efficiently, organizational resources and activities need to be managed as processes
System Approach to Management: A system of interrelated processes contributes to efficiency and effectiveness of an organization.
Continual Improvement: Is a permanent organizational priority
Factual Approach to Decision Making: Effective decision making is based on the logical analysis of data and information.
Mutually Beneficial Customer-Supplier Relationship: Will enhance the abilities of both organizations to create value.

Total Quality Management

2007-08-08T21:20:00.000-07:00

Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total = Quality involves everyone and all activities in the company.
Quality = Conformance to Requirements (Meeting Customer Requirements).
Management = Quality can and must be managed.
TQM = A process for managing quality; it must be a continuous way of life; a philosophy of perpetual improvement in everything we do

TQM Total Quality Management is the management of total quality. We know that management consists of planning, organizing, directing, control, and assurance. Then, one has to define "total quality". Total quality is called total because it consists of 3 qualities : Quality of return to satisfy the needs of the shareholders, Quality of products and services to satisfy some specific needs of the consumer (end customer) and Quality of life - at work and outside work - to satisfy the needs of the people in the organization. This is achieved with the help of upstream and downstream partners of the enterprise. To this, we have to add the corporate citizenship, i.e. the social, technological, economical, political, and ecological (STEPE) responsibility of the enterprise concerning its internal (its people) and external (upstream and downstream) partners, and community. Therefore, Total quality management goes well beyond satisfying the customer, or merely offering quality products (goods and/or services).

The Ksy Principles are:

Focus on Customer
Leadership role is extremely important
Involves all
Continuous improvement
Quantitative methods
Human Issues very important
Communication is important

The Ten Steps to TQM are as follows:

Pursue New Strategic Thinking
Know your Customers
Set True Customer Requirements
Concentrate on Prevention, Not Correction
Reduce Chronic Waste
Pursue a Continuous Improvement Strategy
Use Structured Methodology for Process Improvement
Reduce Variation
Use a Balanced Approach
Apply to All Functions

MUDA

2007-08-07T19:19:00.000-07:00

Muda means waste, where waste is any activity that does not add value. Reducing or eliminating muda is, of course, one of the fundamental objectives of any quality-oriented person. Taichi Ohno of Toyota identified what are called the seven wastes or seven mudas, being the most common form of muda found:

Waste from overproduction

Which leads to excess inventory, paperwork, handling, storage, space, interest charges, machinery, defects, people and overhead.
It is often difficult to see this waste as everyone seems busy.

Waste of time in waiting

People may be waiting for parts or instructions.
Mostly they are waiting for one another, which often happens because they have non-aligned objectives.
Transportation waste
Poor layouts lead to things being moved multiple times.
If things are not well place, they can be hard to find.
It can aggravate alignment of processes.
Processing waste
Additional effort may be required in an inefficient process.
Inventory waste
Excess buffer stocks a whole host of sins, which will be uncovered by gradually lowering inventory (doing it all at once will cause total breakdown!).

Waste of motion

This includes movement of people, from simple actions when in one place to geographic movement. Having everything to hand as it is needed reduces motion muda.

Waste from product defects

Defects cause rework, confusion and upset a synchronized set of processes.

A simplified view of muda is:
* Wasting time.
* Wasting a consumable resource, such as materials.
* Causing dissatisfaction (including incomplete satisfaction).

Muda is one of the ‘3Ms’:
* muda, or waste,
* mura, meaning irregular, uneven or inconsistent, and
* muri, meaning unreasonable or excessive strain.

Armand Feigenbaum

2007-08-06T19:41:00.000-07:00

Armand V. Feigenbaum is an American quality control expert expert who was born in1922. In 1951, Feigenbaum originated the concept of total quality control in his book "Total Quality Control". The book has been translated into many languages.

The founder and president of General System Co., an international engineering company that designs and implements total quality systems, he defined Total Quality Control as follows: “Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to enable production and service at the most economical levels which allow full customer satisfaction.”

Feigenbaum is also known for his concept of the “hidden plant“. That is that in every factory a certain proportion of its capacity is wasted through not getting it right first time. Feigenbaum quoted a figure of up to 40% of the capacity of the plant being wasted. At the time this was an unbelievable figure; even today some managers are still to learn that this is a figure not too far removed from the truth.

The Crucial elements of Total Quality are:

The elements of total quality to enable a totally customer focus (internal and external)
Quality is the customers perception of what quality is, not what a company thinks it is.
Quality and cost are the same not different.
Quality is an individual and team commitment.
Quality and innovation are interrelated and mutually beneficial.
Managing Quality is managing the business.
Quality is a principal.
Quality is not a temporary or quick fix but a continuous process of improvement.
Productivity gained by cost effective demonstrably beneficial Quality investment.
Implement Quality by encompassing suppliers and customers in the system.

He has also served as the President of American Society for Quality between 1961-1963

5S Methodology

2007-08-05T20:00:00.000-07:00

5S is a reference to a list of five Japanese words which 'start' with S. This list is a mnemonic for a methodology that is often incorrectly characterized as "standardized cleanup", however it is much more than cleanup. 5S is a philosophy and a way of organizing and managing the workspace by eliminating waste.

In the words of Hiroyuki Hirano, author of 5S: Five Pillars of the Visual Workplace:"A company that cannot successfully implement the 5 Ss cannot expect to effectively integrate JIT, re-engineering, or any other large-scale change. Good workplaces develop beginning with the 5S’s. Bad workplaces fall apart beginning with the 5 Ss."

The key targets of 5S are workplace morale and efficiency. The assertion of 5S is that by assigning everything a location time is not wasted by looking for things. Additionally, it is quickly obvious when something is missing from its designated location. 5S advocates believe that the benefits of this methodology come from deciding what should be kept, where it should be kept, and how it should be stored. This decision making process should lead to a dialog which can build a clear understanding between employees of how work should be done. It also instills ownership of the process in each employee. As a result, it is often executed in tandem with standard work which standardizes the processes in which the items organized in 5S are used.

The 5S's are:

Seiri: tidiness, organization. Refers to the practice of sorting through all the tools, materials, etc., in the work area and keeping only essential items. Everything else is stored or discarded. This leads to fewer hazards and less clutter to interfere with productive work.
Seiton: orderliness. Focuses on the need for an orderly workplace. "Orderly" in this sense means arranging the tools and equipment in an order that promotes work flow. Tools and equipment should be kept where they will be used, and the process should be ordered in a manner that eliminates extra motion.
Seiso: systemized cleanliness. Indicates the need to keep the workplace clean as well as neat. Cleaning in Japanese companies is a daily activity. At the end of each shift, the work area is cleaned up and everything is restored to its place. The key point is that maintaining cleanliness should be part of the daily work - not an occasional activity initiated when things get too messy.
Seiketsu : standards. This refers to standardized work practices. It refers to more than standardized cleanliness (otherwise this would mean essentially the same as "systemized cleanliness"). This means operating in a consistent and standardized fashion. Everyone knows exactly what his or her responsibilities are.
Shitsuke : sustaining discipline. Refers to maintaining standards. Once the previous 4S's have been established they become the new way to operate. Maintain the focus on this new way of operating, and do not allow a gradual decline back to the old ways of operating.

Benefits of the 5S System:

Improved quality
Achieve work standardization
Decreased changeover time
Improved safety
Reduced storage costs
Reduced cycle time
Reduced machine down time
Boost employee morale as well as work environment

SPICE (Software Process Improvement Capability dEtermination)

2007-08-02T20:07:00.000-07:00

ISO/IEC 15504 also known as SPICE (Software Process Improvement and Capability dEtermination) is a framework for the assessment of software processes developed by the Joint Technical Subcommittee between ISO International Organization for Standardization and IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

This lists out a set of activities that might (and should) occur in a software project, it does not set out the order in which such activities should be carried out. It is a set of categories in which the assessors can place the evidence that they collect during their assessment, so that the assessors can give an overall determination of the organisation's capabilities for delivering software.

The Process dimension defines the process divided into five process categories of:

Customer-Supplier
Engineering
Supporting
Management
Organization

There are 6 Capability levels as defined in the following scales:

Level 0 - Incomplete Process
Level 1: Performed Process
Level 2: Managed Process
Level 3: Established Process
Level 4: Predictable Process
Level 5: Optimized Process

Uses of ISO/IEC 15504 are broadly in 2 contexts:
a) Process Improvement
b) Capability Determination (i.e., evaluation of supplier's process capability)

Dr. Edward Deming

2007-08-01T21:28:00.001-07:00

Dr. W. Edwards Deming is known as the father of the Japanese post-war industrial revival and was regarded by many as the leading quality guru in the United States. He passed on in 1993.
Trained as a statistician, his expertise was used during World War II to assist the United States in its effort to improve the quality of war materials.

He was invited to Japan at the end of World War II by Japanese industrial leaders and engineers. They asked Dr. Deming how long it would take to shift the perception of the world from the existing paradigm that Japan produced cheap, shoddy imitations to one of producing innovative quality products.

Some important dates connected with Deming are:

1928- awarded doctorate in mathematical physics
1946 - After sharing his expertise in statistical quality control to help the US war effort during World war II, the war Department sent Deming to Japan to help nation recover from its wartime losses.
1956 - awarded the Shewhart medal by the American society for Quality Control (ASQC)
1960 - honoured by the Japanese Emperor with the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure for his teachings

A prominent consultant, teacher, and author on the subject of Quality. Deming has published more than 200 works, including well known books Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position and Out of the crisis. Deming developed 14 points for managing.

The 14 points for managing:

Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to become competitive and to stay in business, and to provide jobs.
Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.
Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the first place.
End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total cost. Move toward a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.
Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.
Institute training on the job.
Institute leadership (see Point 12). The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as supervision of production workers.
Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may be encountered with the product or service.
Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force. (a) Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership. (b) Eliminate management by objective. (c) Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality.
Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of workmanship. This means, inter alia, abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of management by objective.
Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation is everybody’s job.

The Deming Cycle: The Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) cycle is an all-encompassing improvement methodology.

Plan what to do.
Do the experimentation.
Check the solutions.
Act on the results.

The ami approach - An Insight to a Quantitative approach to Process Improvement

2007-07-31T20:25:00.000-07:00

Here is sharing with you all something I read and learnt from multiple sources on the Internet about one of the approaches of metrics in the industry.

ami - (application of metrics in industry) was a two-year project, which commenced in December 1990 under sponsorship of DG XIII of the Commission of the European Communities through the ESPRIT programme promoting the use of measurement in software development. The goal of this project was to develop a practical approach and to validate it on a variety of projects all over Europe.

The ami paradigm (Assess, Analyze, Metricate, Improve) is comparable to the Shewart cycle - PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) for process improvement. ami, was developed for software measurement mainly in the context of software process improvement, based on PDCA cycle. This methodology is stepwise iterative, incremental, goal-oriented procedure coupling together a model-based process assessment technique with a quantitative approach to software development issues from the viewpoint of the process, product and resources.

There are twelve steps in this approach, which are grouped by three in the activities:

Assess: This activity deals with the assessment of the software development environment for defining the primary goals for metrication.

Step 1: The weaknesses and critical parts of software development process are emphasized.
Step 2: From the findings of Step 1, the primary goals are defined. Here we consider a hierarchy of top level goals depending on the maturity of the development process. We need to envisage understanding the goals (support of project management with process and product metrics), before setting up the change goals (improvement of productivity while maintaining quality). The assumption behind improvement goals is that the process is well defined.
Step 3: A Validation of goals is set up to be performed against the assessment conclusions, the timeline and the budget to avoid too ambitious goals

Analyze: The aim of this activity is to build a goal-tree.

Step 4: The primary goals are translated into sub-goals and metrics
Step 5: Primary goals are broken down into more manageable sub-goals until directly quantifiable goals are reached. The process is based on the Goal / Question / Metric paradigm.
Step 6: After verifying the consistency of the tree, metrics are derived from these bottom goals with the help of questions. The results are a documented goal tree and the associated set of metrics.

Metricate: This activity aims at setting up a measurement program, collating and verifying data.

Step 7: Writing the measurement plan which is the reference document for collection and analysis of data and for ease of tracing of these tasks
Step 8: Collecting the data
Step 9: Verifying the Data.

Improve: This activity aims at exploitation of measures that are required to be performed in reference with the goals defined in the analyze activity.

Step 10: The improvement activity starts with an appropriate presentation of the measurement data.
Step 11: Graphics (histograms, pie charts, scatter plot) should present the data so that both trend and outliers can be detected
Step 12: By relating data to goals, it is to be determined whether the goals are fulfilled, how quickly they are fulfilled or why they did fail. Further corrective and / or improving actions are based on this determination. The first loop is achieved. Now, it is worth quantifying the first benefits of the measurement programme.

The iterative aspects of the approach permits not only by a reassessment, the refinement of goals and consequently the metrics set, but also the improvement of the metrication process.

- Sujatha Das

Requirement Elicitation Techniques

2007-07-31T20:21:00.000-07:00

The development process commences with the endeavor of understanding the client’s “business requirements”. This leads to creating a Vision and Scope document that describes the background leading to the decision to develop a new or modified system or capability and describes the system to be developed.

For the success of any project, an agreed upon understanding of the desired capability is extremely critical. It is good to consider iterative scoping meetings with the client for achieving this. The process of Requirements Elicitation, itself, generates more detailed and creative thinking about the problem that, in turn, affects the scope. The following are some popular and recommended techniques for requirements elicitation. These are techniques that can be used in combination as well.

a. Interviews: This technique uses a series of questions that focus on the client’s perspective, develops an understanding of the problem and finally evaluates the effectiveness of the meeting. For example, who is the customer for this system, what is the real reason for wanting to solve this problem, what environment is this product likely to encounter, What kind of product performance is required, etc. Although this is widely used and popular technique, there is chance that the predisposition, experience, understanding and bias of the interviewee and the interviewer may influence the information obtained. According to Gause, “The use of context free questions by the interviewer helps avoid prejudicing the response”. Context free question is a question that does not suggest a particular response.

b. Document Analysis: All effective requirements elicitation involves some level of document analysis such as business plans, markets studies, contracts, requests for proposals, statements of work, existing guidelines, analyses of existing systems, and procedures. Improved requirements coverage results from identifying and consulting all likely sources of requirements.

c. Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a powerful technique because the most creative or effective ideas often result from combining seemingly unrelated ideas. Also, this technique encourages original thinking and the proposal of unusual ideas. Brainstorming involves both idea generation and idea reduction. The goal of the former is to identify as many ideas as possible, while the latter ranks the ideas into those considered most useful by the group.

d. Requirements Workshops: This technique is considered very powerful for eliciting requirements because they can be designed to encourage consensus concerning the requirements of a particular capability. They are best facilitated by an outside expert and are typically short (1 - 3 days).

Other advantages that are achieved by this technique includes commitment of participants to the work products and project success, teamwork, resolution of political issues and reaching consensus on a host of topics.

Some of the benefits of this techniques are:

Costs are lower than multiple interviews
Gives a structure to the capture and analysis of the requirements process
Dynamic, interactive, cooperative
Involves users and cuts across organization boundaries
Helps to identify and prioritize needs and resolve contentious issues
Helps to manage user’s expectations and attitude towards change

A special category of requirements workshop is a Joint Application Development (JAD) workshop. JAD is a method for developing requirements through which customers, user representatives and developers work together with a facilitator to produce a requirements specification that both sides support. This is an effective way to define user needs early. Another special category of the requirements workshop is contained within the Rapid Application Development (RAD) model.

e. Prototyping: This technique helps in building a quick and rough version of the desired system or parts of the system. This illustrates the capabilities of the system to users and designers. This technique serves as an excellent means of communication mechanism for all reviewers in understanding the interactions with the system. This sometimes gives an overly optimistic impression of completion possibilities since an impression is created that the developers are further along than is actually the case. Prototypes can be combined very effectively with other approaches such as JAD and models.

f. Use Cases: A use case is a picture of actions that a system performs by depicting the actions. This should be accompanied by a textual description and should not be used in isolation from other requirements gathering techniques. These are always supplemented with quality attributes and other information such as interface characteristics. Use cases and scenarios (description of the sequence of events) are known for facilitating team communication. They provide a context for the requirements by expressing the sequence of events and a common language for the end users and the technical team.

g. Storyboards: This technique is a set of drawings depicting a set of user activities that occur in an existing or envisioned system or capability. Storyboards may be thought of as forms of paper prototyping. In this technique, the Customers, Users or developers start by drawing pictures of the screens, dialogs, toolbars and other elements they believe the software should provide. These drawings are evolved by the group till the real requirements and details are worked out and agreed upon. This technique is in expensive and eliminates the risks and higher costs of prototyping.

h. Interfaces Analysis: One of the major causes of overrun is missing or incorrect interface. Identifying the external interfaces early clarifies product scope, aids risk assessment, reduces product development costs, and improves customer satisfaction. The steps of identifying, simplifying, controlling and monitoring interfaces help to reduce the risk of problems related to interfaces.

i. Modeling: In the words of Alhir, “To solve a problem, appropriate knowledge about the problem and solution (architectural views), and depicted (diagrammed) using some language that enables it to be communicated and leveraged in the problem-solving process”. A model therefore, is a representation of reality or level of abstraction that is intended to facilitate understanding. The use of prototypes and models helps eliminate ambiguities and inconsistencies and are correlated with the most successful projects.

j. Performance and capability analysis: Stakeholders emphasis that concentrating on system functions and data results in a lack of attention to the total system requirements and often results in incomplete performance, capacity and external interface requirements. Thus it is vital to ensure that the requirements gathering process provides coverage for all requirements.

- Sujatha Das

ISO 9001:2000 - An Introduction

2007-07-30T22:23:00.000-07:00

The ISO 9000 family is primarily concerned with "quality management". This means what the organization does to fulfil:

the customer's quality requirements, and
applicable regulatory requirements, while aiming to enhance customer satisfaction, and
achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit of these objectives.

ISO 9001:2000 specifies requirements for a quality management system for any organization that needs to demonstrate its ability to consistently provide product that meets customer and applicable regulatory requirements and aims to enhance customer satisfaction.

ISO 9001:2000 has been organized in a user-friendly format with terms that are easily recognized by all business sectors. The standard is used for certification/registration and contractual purposes by organizations seeking recognition of their quality management system.

The greatest value is obtained when you use the entire family of standards in an integrated manner. It is suggested that, beginning with ISO 9000:2000, you adopt ISO 9001:2000 to achieve a first level of performance. The practices described in ISO 9004:2000 may then be implemented to make your quality management system increasingly effective in achieving your own business goals. ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 9004:2000 have been formatted as a consistent pair of standards to facilitate their use.

Walter A. Shewhart

2007-07-28T15:47:00.000-07:00

Walter Shewhart is known as the "Father of Quality". He was concerned that statistical theory serve the needs of industry. He exhibited the restlessness of one looking for a better way. A man of science who patiently developed and tested his ideas and the ideas of others, he was an astute observer of developments in the world of science and technology. While the literature of the day discussed the stochastic nature of both biological and technical systems, and spoke of the possibility of applying statistical methodology to these systems, Shewhart actually showed how it was to be done; in that respect, the field of quality control can claim a genuine pioneer in Shewhart. His monumental work, Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, published in 1931, is regarded as a complete and thorough exposition of the basic principles of quality control.

A strong background in the sciences and engineering prepared Shewhart for a life of accomplishments. He graduated from the University of Illinois with bachelor’s and master’s degrees, and he received a doctorate in physics from the University of California at Berkeley in 1917. He taught at the universities of Illinois and California, and he briefly headed the physics department at the Wisconsin Normal School in LaCrosse.

Most of Shewhart’s professional career was spent as an engineer at Western Electric from 1918 to 1924, and at Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he served in several capacities as a member of the technical staff from 1925 until his retirement in 1956. He also lectured on quality control and applied statistics at the University of London, Stevens Institute of Technology, the graduate school of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and in India. He was a member of the visiting committee at Harvard’s Department of Social Relations, an honorary professor at Rutgers, and a member of the advisory committee of the Princeton mathematics department.

He had developed the famous PDSA (Plan - Do - Study - Act) Cycle, which later on was popularized by Edward Deming. Walter A. Shewhart first discussed the concept of PDCA in his 1939 book, Statistical Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control, although it was Shewart's protégé Deming who encouraged a systematic approach to problem solving and promoted the now widely recognised four step process for continual improvement.Deming refers to it as the PDSA Cycle (Plan Do Study Act) or the Shewhart Cycle. The Japanese call it the Deming Cycle. Others call it the PDCA Cycle (Plan Do Check Act) or the Deming Wheel.The model can be used for the ongoing improvement of almost anything and it contains the following four continuous steps: Plan, Do, Study and Act.

Plan: Develop a plan for improving quality at a process
Do: Execute the plan, first on a small scale
Study: Evaluate feedback to confirm or to adjust the plan
Act: Make the plan permanent or study the adjustments

Reference Links:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_A._Shewhart
http://www.asq.org/about-asq/who-we-are/bio_shewhart.html

What is a Process Model?

2007-07-25T21:20:00.000-07:00

A model is nothing by a reflection of a concept or a reference point. It provides a foundation for an organization to commence its activities. It reflects the benefit of a community's prior experiences and learning's and works as a common language and a shared vision.

Model helps in prioritizing actions within an organization since it provides the base and reference. It provides guidance for defining what "improvement" means to any organization.

Having said that, a process model is a collection of elements which describe the characteristics of effective processes. The processes that are deliberated and included in the model are those proven by experience to be effective. With a clear foundation and a method for deriving the approach it is easier for setting process improvement objectives and priorities for an organization without re-inventing the wheel on a trial and error method. Process models helps in ensuring that stable, capable and mature processes are defined and implemented across organizations. Be it project specific or organizational wide, the model provides guidance for continual improvements. Various monitoring aspects such as audits, asessments, appriasal methodologies help in assessing the state of improvement efforts within the organization and to take the necessary corrective or preventive actions.

The Change brought in by "Paradigm Shift" in Quality

2007-07-22T20:36:00.000-07:00

Paradigm Shift, was first used by Thomas Kuhn, in his book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" (1962), to describe a change in basic assumption within the ruling theory of science. Today this has become popular to suggest, "a change from one way of thinking to another". The possibility of perceiving or viewing things differently. This concept has evolved and has taken much importance in almost all areas of life today.

We find that when we speak of Quality, the same aspect of "Paradigm Shift" comes into vogue. "Quality" was perceived in the early days as "what was being delivered as per the requirements provided to us" - This essentially menat that we probably lost focus on "what the expectations of the customer" might be! As days went by and there were learnings from the mis-match of understanding between the producer and the customer, the focus began to also include "Customer expectations or Fit to Use" apart from "Conformance to Requirements". This became a holistic view and as it stands today, people realize the importance of both these views when they speak of Quality.

Welcome to Quest for Quality

2007-07-21T03:27:00.000-07:00

A Warm welcome to all readers!

A Space for sharing information on Process Models, Standards, Methodologies, et al to all Quality professionals from the Information Technology industry.

My passion towards this subject has urged me to write about what ever little I know or gain knowledge through various sources.

I hope you will enjoy topics posted here.

Good Day!

Sujatha